Facts about ancient Rome recently discovered by science. The history of courier mail - from antiquity to the present day What adorned the hats of postal couriers of the ancient world

People have always needed information exchange. That is why the history of mail began long before the appearance of writing and letters familiar to modern people. In ancient times, voice was used to transmit news. This method persisted in some regions until the Middle Ages. For example, in the Inca empire for many centuries there were messengers-heralds who spread news from the capital, moving around the country using a network of branched mountain roads. Later they began to use in which cords and threads acted as an information carrier.

Cuneiform tablets

The first writing system in the classical sense of the word is cuneiform. With its appearance about 3 thousand years BC. NS. the history of mail has moved to a fundamentally new level. Cuneiform spread among the peoples of ancient Mesopotamia: Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, Hittites.

The messages were drawn with a wooden stick on clay tablets while the clay retained its softness. Due to the specific instrumentation, characteristic wedge-shaped strokes arose. The envelopes for such letters were also made of clay. To read the message, the addressee had to break the "package".

The ancient history of mail has long remained virtually unknown. A great contribution to its study was made by the opening of the library of the last great king of Assyria, Ashurbanipal, who ruled in the 7th century. BC NS. By his order, an archive of 25 thousand clay tablets was created. Among the cuneiform texts were both government documents and ordinary letters. The library was opened in the 19th century. Thanks to a unique find, it was possible to decipher the cuneiform script previously incomprehensible to translators.

Seashells and drawings

The Huron Indians made do with shell beads. They were strung on threads and so they received whole letters. Each plate had a specific color. Black meant death, red - war, yellow - tribute, etc. The ability to read such colored belts was considered a privilege and wisdom.

The history of mail has also passed the "illustrated" stage. Before writing letters, people learned to draw. of the ancients, samples of which are still found in remote caves, this is also a kind of mail that went to the modern addressee for generations. The language of drawings and tattoos is still preserved among isolated Polynesian tribes.

Alphabet and sea mail

The ancient Egyptians had their own unique writing system. In addition, they had a developed pigeon mail. The Egyptians used hieroglyphs to convey information. Much less known is the fact that it was this people who created the first prototype of the alphabet. Among the numerous hieroglyphs-drawings, they appeared hieroglyphs that convey sounds (there were 24 of them in total).

In the future, this principle of encryption was developed by other peoples of the Ancient East. The first alphabet itself is considered to be the alphabet that appeared in the city of Ugarit on the territory of modern Syria around the 15th century. BC NS. Then a similar system spread to other Semitic languages.

The Phoenicians had their own alphabet. This merchant people became famous for their skillful shipbuilders. Sailors carried out the delivery of mail to numerous colonies in different parts of the Mediterranean. On the basis of the Phoenician alphabet, the Aramaic and Greek alphabets arose, from which almost all modern writing systems originate.

Angarion

Angarion is an ancient Persian postal service created in the Achaemenid Empire in the 6th century. BC NS. It was founded by King Cyrus II the Great. Prior to that, the delivery of mail from one end of the state to the other could take months, which categorically did not suit the authorities.

In the time of Cyrus, hangars appeared (as the horse couriers were called). The postal business of that era gave the first shoots of the existing one today. The longest road of the Angarion ran from Susa to Sardis, and its length was 2500 kilometers. The huge route was divided into a hundred stations, at which horses and couriers changed. With the help of this effective system, the Persian kings freely passed orders to their satraps in the most distant provinces of the vast empire.

Under Cyrus II's successor Darius I, the Royal Road was built, the quality of which was so high that Alexander the Great, Roman emperors and even Charles I, who ruled the medieval Frankish empire in the 9th century, took advantage of the example of its organization (and of the Angarion in general) in his state.

Roman era

As noted above, the Roman history of mail and letters was in many ways similar to the Persian one. In the republic, and later in the empire, there was a parallel state and private messaging system. The latter was based on the activities of numerous messengers who were hired (or used as slaves) by wealthy patricians.

At the height of its power, the Roman Empire encompassed colossal territories in three parts of the world. Thanks to a single network of branched roads, already in the 1st century AD, it was possible with confidence to send a letter from Syria to Spain or from Egypt to Gaul. Small stations, where horses changed, were set up at a distance of only a few kilometers. Packages were transported by horse couriers, carts were used for luggage.

The fastest and most efficient government post was available only for official correspondence. Later, special permits were issued for the use of this system to traveling officials and Christian priests. The state post was in charge of the praetorian prefect close to the emperor, and from the 4th century - the master of offices.

Medieval Europe

After the fall of the Roman Empire, the old postal system fell apart. Messages began to arrive with great difficulty. Borders, the absence and desolation of roads, crime and the disappearance of a single centralized power interfered. The postage became even worse with the rise of feudalism. Large landowners often charged huge tolls on their territory, which made it extremely difficult for couriers to work.

In the early Middle Ages, the only centralized organization in Europe in the early Middle Ages was the church. Monasteries, archives, churches and administrative bodies needed a constant exchange of information across much of a politically fragmented Europe. Whole spiritual orders began to take up the organization of mail. Often, itinerant monks and priests carried important correspondence around the Old World, whose cassock and spiritual status were often the best means protection from trouble with strangers.

Their corporations of messengers arose at universities, where students flocked from all over the world. The couriers of educational institutions of Naples, Bologna, Toulouse and Paris became especially famous. They kept in touch between the students and their families.

Most of all, merchants and artisans needed mail. Without exchanging written messages with their partners, they could not establish trade and marketing of products. Separate corporations of merchant mail arose around guilds and other associations of merchants. The standard of such a system was created in Venice, whose trade contacts linked the medieval republic not only with all of Europe, but also with distant countries on the other side of the Mediterranean Sea.

In Italy and Germany, where the institute of free cities was formed, an effective city post became widespread. Mainz, Cologne, Nordhausen, Breslavl, Augsburg, etc. had their own experienced messengers. They delivered both letters to the administration and parcels from ordinary residents who paid for the service at a certain rate.

Coachmen and triplets

Thanks to "The Tale of Tsar Saltan" by Alexander Pushkin, everyone in childhood heard the phrase: "A messenger is going with a diploma." Domestic mail originated during the period of Kievan Rus. The need for a correspondence exchange system has always been relevant for our country due to its vast territories. The colossal distances for Western Europeans were reflected in the norms characteristic of Russian messengers and incredible for foreigners.

In the days of Ivan the Terrible, tsarist couriers were required to travel a hundred kilometers a day, which was difficult to explain to foreign observers. In the XIII - XVIII centuries. post stations in Russia were called pits. They kept horses and operated inns.

There was also the so-called Yamskaya duty. It extended to the draft population of the provinces. Peasants serving their duty were to organize the transportation of government officials, goods and diplomats. This tradition was spread by the Tatar-Mongols during their yoke over the East Slavic principalities. In the 16th century, the Yamskaya order appeared in the Russian state. This analogue of the ministry was engaged not only in postal, but also in tax matters. A short phrase: "A messenger is traveling with a diploma" can hardly convey the complexity of the courier business in medieval Russia.

About two hundred years ago, the famous triple horse teams of different paces appeared. They were specially equipped for long-distance travel. Those located on the sides galloped, and the central rostrum moved at a trot. Thanks to this configuration, the speed limit for its time was reached at 45-50 kilometers per hour.

From stagecoaches to railways and steamboats

Centralized systems of royal mails appeared in England, Sweden, France and other developed countries in the 16th-17th centuries. At the same time, the need for international communication was growing.

At the turn of the Middle Ages and modern times, stagecoaches spread in England. This postal carriage gradually supplanted ordinary horse couriers. She eventually conquered the world and appeared in all parts of the world from Australia to America. The arrival of the mail carriage in the city or village was reported using a special horn.

Another turning point in the development of communication systems took place at the beginning of the 19th century with the emergence of shipping companies and railways. The new type of water transport has proven itself well in the organization of the British-Indian mail. Especially to facilitate travel to the east, the British sponsored construction in Egypt, thanks to which the ships could not bend around Africa.

Mailboxes

There are several versions about where the first mailbox appeared. According to one of them, the vestibules installed in Florence at the beginning of the 16th century can be considered as such. They were placed next to churches - the main public places of the city. A wooden box with a slit at the top was intended for the transmission of anonymous denunciations, which reported on state crimes.

In the same XVI century, similar novelties appeared among sailors. Each British and Dutch colony had its own mailbox. With the help of this technology, mariners transmitted correspondence to other ships.

Renoir de Vilaye is considered the French inventor of the mailbox. It was he who solved the problem of correspondence between Parisians. In the middle of the 17th century, there were four post offices in the French capital, but they could not cope with the gigantic flow of correspondence from ordinary citizens. Renoir de Vilaye was a member of the government and the National Academy of Sciences. Using his own ingenuity and administrative resources (permission of King Louis XIV), in 1653 he initiated the installation of mailboxes throughout Paris, which greatly facilitated the work of the postal service. The novelty quickly took root in the capital and spread to other cities of the country.

The history of Russian post has developed in such a way that domestic mailboxes appeared only in 1848. The first such wonders were installed in Moscow and St. Petersburg. At first, the structures were wooden, then they were replaced by metal ones. For urgent mails, the mailboxes were painted bright orange.

Stamps

The international postal system that developed in modern times had many shortcomings. The key one was that postage fees remained difficult despite all the logistics and technical innovations. First this problem was settled in the UK. In 1840, the earliest of the now known stamps appeared there - "black penny". Its release was associated with the introduction of tariffs for forwarding letters.

The initiator of the creation of the brand was the politician Rowland Hill. The profile of the young Queen Victoria was engraved on the stamp. The innovation stuck and since then each postal envelope of the letter has been equipped with a special label. Stickers have appeared in other countries as well. The reform led to a significant increase in the number of postage in the UK more than doubling in just the first year after the landmark transformation.

The stamps appeared in Russia in 1857. The first postage sign was estimated at 10 kopecks. The stamp featured a two-headed eagle. It was this heraldic symbol that was chosen for the edition, since it was the emblem of the Post Office of the empire. This department tried to keep up with Western trends. The USSR Post also paid much attention to the signs of payment for the shipment appeared in 1923.

Postcards

The familiar postcards have appeared relatively recently. The first card of this kind appeared in 1869 in Austria-Hungary. Soon, this format gained pan-European popularity. This happened during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871, when French soldiers began to massively send illustrated postcards to their relatives.

Front-line fashion was instantly intercepted by businessmen. Within a few months, postcards began to be produced in large quantities in England, Denmark, Belgium and the Netherlands. The first Russian postcard was published in 1872. Six years later, at a special congress in Paris, an international standard for card sizes (9 centimeters long, 14 centimeters wide) was adopted. Later it was changed several times. Over time, subspecies of postcards appeared: greeting, specific, reproductions, art, advertising, political, etc.

New trends

In 1820, the envelope was invented in Great Britain. After another 30 years, stamp parcels appeared. In the middle of the 19th century, a letter could travel around the world in 80-85 days. Departures accelerated when the Trans-Siberian Railway was opened in Russia.

The 19th century was marked by the successive appearance of the telegraph, telephone and radio. The emergence of new technologies did not diminish the importance that the post represented to the people of that time. The Telegraph even rendered invaluable assistance to its development (in all countries, the departments responsible for these two types of communications were gradually united).

In 1874 the Universal Postal Union was created and the Universal Postal Congress was convened. The purpose of the event was to sign an international agreement that could unify disparate systems for transmitting correspondence from different countries of the world. The Congress was attended by representatives of 22 states. They signed the Universal Postal Treaty, which was soon renamed the Universal Postal Convention. The document summarized the international rules for the exchange of items. Since then, the history of Russian post has continued in line with the worldwide evolution of postal communication.

At the end of the 19th century, the development of aeronautics began. Human conquest of the air has led to the disappearance of any physical barriers to shipping around the world. As mentioned above, even ancient civilizations knew their own air mail - pigeon mail. Birds were used by humans to communicate even at the zenith of progress. Pigeons became especially irreplaceable during bloody conflicts. Feathered mail was regularly used on the fronts of the First and Second World War.

Email

The modern era has many definitions. They call it informational. And this is largely true. Today, it is information that is the main resource driving progress. The associated revolution came about thanks to the emergence of the Internet and modern communications.

Nowadays, paper mail, familiar to many generations of people, is gradually giving way to electronic. The iron envelope box was replaced by e-mail, and social networks and completely erased the concept of distance. If twenty years ago the Internet was perceived as a freaky game, now it is difficult to imagine the life of a modern person without it. Available to everyone e-mail embodied the centuries-old evolution of mail with all its different jumps and jumps.

Interestingly, the terminology of the hospitality industry owes a lot to the Romans. And here they also contributed to the development of many civilizations. The word hospitality comes from the Latin hospitium. The same root words are host (owner), hospice (shelter), hotel (hotel, hotel). Hospiters - this is how people in antiquity were called, together with their family, who receive guests in their home. The foreign state entered into an alliance with the hospiters of mutual assistance, friendship and protection.

After the introduction of a regular state postal service (during the reign of Emperor Octavian from 63 BC), state inns also appeared. The state set up courtyards in cities and on main roads, along which couriers and civil servants passed from Rome up to Asia Minor or to Gaul L.V. Batalova. From the history of tourism development, Sat. scientific articles. Issue Izhevsk, 1999, - 148 p ..

State inns were created, distant from each other at a distance of one day of horse riding. As the conquest of new territories and the expansion of the Roman Empire, its customs, economic and organizational structures also spread to new provinces and conquered countries. The fact of the special interest of the state testifies to how seriously the reliability of an institution that provided travelers with shelter, food and lodging for the night was seriously considered in ancient times. So, in the code of Roman laws, the responsibility of such an institution for the belongings of the guest was provided. It was then that it became possible to safely spend the night in an inn. Even today, the legislation of a number of states regulates this issue, based on the above provisions of Roman civil law. After all, guest protection in all countries is one of the main goals of the hotel industry.

Merchants, traders and other guests from the common people could never be settled next to government officials and government messengers. This circumstance influenced the quality of the inns. Those in which representatives of the aristocracy and government officials stayed were built according to all the rules of architectural art and offered a wide range of services for those times. Subsequently, Marco Polo said that at such inns and "the king is not ashamed to stay" "Polo Marco. Book by Marco Polo. M .: Geografgiz, 1956 ..

Taverns and inns, designed to serve the lower class citizens, offered minimal accommodation and recreation. For example, very often travelers simply slept on straw, and in order not to freeze in the cold season, they clung to the warm side of their horse. There was no question of any additional comfort. The organization of the hotel business in the Roman Empire was based on a certain classification of hotels developed by the state authorities. There were two types of hotels: only for patricians (mansiones), the other for plebeians (stabularia).

The Roman hotel was a certain complex of premises of a rather wide functional purpose: these are not only rooms for accommodating travelers, but also warehouses, stables, shops, workshops, etc. Hotels, as a rule, were built of stone and had the necessary list of services. They were heated in winter. Some hotels were served only by officials according to special documents issued by state authorities. This tradition has survived to this day in the form of special rooms for VIPs at airports, train stations and other places where tourists stay.

With the improvement of the functioning of the postal service in the second half of the 4th century, when for a long time it combined the needs for transport and sending news, visiting yards were set up along the roads. They were called "Mansio" and "Station". The first of these terms meant a courtyard, in which there were conditions for accommodating the imperial retinue, the second - a traffic police post.

Later, the alignment of these inns took place. Between the Mancio and the station there were inns of lesser importance, or mutazio (places for changing the horse's harness), in which it was possible to satisfy the most urgent needs of travelers: to eat something, spend the night, replace riding or pack animals.

The distance between the two Mancios depended on the nature of the terrain, but on average it was 40--55 km. Between the two Mancios there could be one or two smaller courtyards, and this already depended not only on the area, but also on its population.

Such inns differed from each other in the volume and quality of their service, ranging from the praetorium, in which it was possible to receive the imperial retinue, to modest institutions. A fully equipped inn could offer almost everything a traveler needed. Here you could eat, spend the night, change mounts (there were up to forty horses and mules in the stables of large visiting yards), carts, charioteers, find servants, people who returned draft animals to the previous station, veterinarians, coachmen and chariots fixing damaged carriages. Kotler F., Bowen J., Makenz J. Marketing. Hospitality and Tourism / Per. from English - M .: UNITI, 1998 ..

Inns and inns and post stations were not built specifically for these purposes, they served not only specifically to the following travelers, although they certainly had the primacy of service. The mail, in spite of the fact that it served mainly the central government, was maintained by local residents. The emperors simply chose the already existing inns of the quality needed for the service and included them in the system, demanding a free overnight stay for each diploma holder.

Only in remote areas, such as on passes or on secluded roads, the imperial power was forced to build everything from the very foundation. In such places, all travelers, individuals, as well as representatives of official authorities were accepted for the night in order to compensate for the costs. Carts, animals, charioteers, grooms - everyone was attracted to serve there from the local surroundings, if possible. From that time on, people began to appear who worked precisely in inns. Inns, especially on the main roads, were competently built by the Romans and were quite comfortable for their time.

Over time, the maintenance of the inn became burdensome for its manager, since with the development of society and civilization, the requirements for it constantly increased. They were presented not only by those who had the right to use the visiting courtyard by law, but also those from among the officials deprived of conscience who arbitrarily confiscated horses and carriages or brazenly brought with them to the visiting courtyards people who were not entitled to free service. Special inspectors (curiosi, courseus, publicity) checked the eligibility of using diplomas after their expiration date, driving on the wrong route along which the person who presented the document was supposed to follow, using the wrong type of riding animals that were used by those passing by.

One by one, the emperors enacted stringent laws to end the abuse and to keep the service at the courtyard at an appropriate level.

There were regulations regarding the number of carts and animals that could be used by officials, determining the maximum allowed cargo, the number of drivers, travel routes, the weight of saddles and packs, even the size and type of whips. One prescription stated that "no one will reward a single driver, charioteer or veterinarian serving in a public institution, because they receive food and clothing that is sufficient for them." In other words, it was forbidden to tip these employees. Orders not to be given were rarely followed, and all indications are that these orders were not being properly followed.

Every person using the post had to know exactly where the various inns were located. There were itineraria available to travelers, which listed the courtyards along a given road and the distance between them.

There were also conditionally made schematic maps, from which it was possible to find out not only where the inn was located, but also what could be offered there. A copy of one such map made in the Middle Ages, the so-called Peutinger's table, reached the Renaissance period. It was drawn on a long sheet of parchment 33 cm wide and 6.7 cm long. It is extremely inaccurate in cartographic terms, but it represents the roads of the entire Roman Empire in such a way that it can be easily read. It contains information similar to that which can be found on a modern road map: lines indicating roads, names of cities and large villages and other places where you can stop; numbers indicating the distance between them in Roman miles. It is interesting to note that about many of the names there are small colored drawings - symbols. They served the same purpose as symbols surprisingly similar to them in modern guidebooks. They had to indicate at first glance what are the possibilities to spend the next night while following this road Shapoval GD History of tourism. Minsk., IP, "Enoperspectiva" -1999, - 216 p.

The names, without accompanying drawings, denoted the simplest courtyard, which could represent little more than water, a roof over your head, food and a fresh change of riding or riding animals.

For example, a traveler, leaving Rome along the Aurelian road leading north along the coast of the Tyrrhenian Sea, could learn from a map diagram that the first suitable place to stay would be Alcyum, eighteen Roman miles from the capital, with a minimum of amenities (there was no picture in the name), from there it was ten miles to Pyrgi with a minimum of amenities, then it was six miles to Punik, where there were also few amenities, but from there it was a stone's throw to the Aqua Apollinarski with a first-class hotel (indicated by a quadrangular building), from there it was four miles to Aqua Tavri with the same amenities, as in the Aqua of Apollinar, etc.

Government messengers hurried from station to station at an average speed of five miles an hour, or traveled fifty Roman miles during a normal day of travel. Thus, news from Rome reached Brundisium in seven days, to Byzantium - about 25 days, to Antioch - about 40 days, to Alexandria - about 55 days. In exceptional cases, traveling day and night, messengers could triple this speed. When in 69 A.D. NS. in Mogunti-ak over the Rhine (now Mainz, Germany) the legions mutinied, news of this reached Rome within 8-9 days. A messenger on such occasions traveled an average of 150 Roman miles per day. The traveler, who was given government orders, relied on the conveniences of the public post office and had few worries. He presented his diploma at a nearby inn and received the appropriate means of transportation, looked at his list of stations or map maps in search of appropriate places to stay on his way, ate there, spent the night, changed the team and crew until he arrived at the destination. Officially, Privately Travelers were not allowed to use the mail, but since human nature is what it is, exceptions were inevitable.

Those who traveled privately and could not legally or illegally use government mail, had the opportunity to find accommodation in the courtyards and shelters, since in many provinces they were the only, and in some localities, the best courtyards. Moreover, if he did not travel in a carriage with his own team, he could hire one, which was quite accessible to those who were going to travel not on foot, but with the help of vehicles. If on an open road he reached the post office immediately after official group, which requisitioned everything that was at the disposal of this station, he had no choice but to wait. In any case, he moved more slowly than the government messenger.

Already in the III century. BC. the builders of Rome erected tall tenement buildings - insulas - to accommodate the city's growing population and visitors. These were three-, four-, and sometimes five-storey buildings with a wooden frame. In Rome, the insula were inhabited by both the poor and the middle class of the townspeople; rich people lived in mansions. In such a multi-storey building, individual rooms or entire floors were rented out. In the Roman port of Ostia, where the lack of space was especially acute, everyone lived in the multi-storey insuls (the remains of a number of not only well-maintained but also insula decorated with frescoes and reliefs have survived). In other cities, where there was enough space for building (such as Pompeii), insul was not erected at all, houses with a garden or mansions were built. Hundreds of cities in Rome had aqueducts - aqueducts that supply water to the city. As a rule, aqueducts were monumental structures on arched supports. The longest aqueduct - 132 km - was built under Emperor Hadrian in Carthage. At the same time, houses appeared - lupanaria (brothels) Shapoval GD History of tourism. Minsk., IP, "Enoperspektiva" -1999, - 216 p ..

Some wealthy landowners also built inns on the borders of their estates. They were usually run by slaves specializing in housekeeping. Those inns and taverns, which were located closer to the cities, were more often visited by wealthy citizens, and therefore they were supported by freedmen or retired gladiators who decided to invest their savings in the "restaurant business". Innkeepers in those days were deprived of many civil rights, including the right to serve in the army, bring proceedings against anyone in court, take the oath and act as guardians of other people's children. In other words, the moral foundations of every person involved in this business were automatically questioned.

Antique cameos, these miniature creations of human hands, combine subtle grace and beauty. And although their age is counted for more than one dozen centuries, looking at them, each viewer has the feeling that these images are about to come to life! After all, in ancient times in Ancient Rome, in Ancient Greece and the Hellenistic states, this art reached the heights of perfection.

It is not for nothing that it is said about them: “ Gemmas are small, but they conquer centuries"(S. Reinak). The art of miniature carving on precious and semi-precious stones, glyptics, has been known since ancient times. At the same time, carved miniatures, called gems, can be of two types - with convex images (these are cameos) or carved (intaglio).

Intaglio as seals

Intaglios are an older type of carving, and they flourished a long time ago. Intaglio was carved on monochromatic stones, usually for a practical purpose - to be used as seals. On soft clay or wax, impressions were put down, thus sealing the premises, sealing letters and documents. And they also stamped some things, thereby marking their belonging to the owner of the intaglio.

Carving miniature intaglios is not easy; the carver must have a good idea of ​​what an inverted print will look like. Varieties of quartz are most often used as material for intaglios: carnelian and reddish chalcedony, as well as rock crystal.

Cameos - luxury goods in ancient Greece

In the era of antiquity, at the end of the 4th century BC. e., the masters of Ancient Rome and Ancient Greece, continuing to work with intaglios, begin to work with another material - multi-colored and multi-layered sardonyx or agate, from which convex relief gems - cameos are carved. With a skillful approach, the carvers were able to achieve interesting color and light effects.
Working on double or triple portraits, they tried to maintain each of them in its own color. And if it was possible to successfully fall into color, which was not at all easy, the cameos seemed to come to life.
While intaglios were used for practical purposes, cameos became luxury goods. They were inserted for beauty into rings and diadems, they decorated their clothes ... But not everyone could afford to buy them.

Gems of Alexandria

The first to work with cameos based on polychrome sardonyx were unnamed Greek stone carvers who served at the Ptolemaic court in Alexandria. In terms of glyptics, they were great masters, even their earliest works with cameos were performed masterly.

A number of their works have become famous masterpieces. These include the unique "Gonzaga Cameo", "Farnese Chalice", "Ptolemy's Cup" and others.

Their most brilliant work, recognized as a masterpiece of all time, was the Gonzaga Cameo, which is kept in the Hermitage.

The most beautiful cameo, one of the largest. There are two profiles carved on it - male and female. Most likely, this is Ptolemy II and his wife Arsinoe, who is also his sister.

This cameo did not escape the fate of many historical relics: seven times it passed from one owner to another until it was in St. Petersburg. It was presented to the Russian Emperor Alexander I by Josephine in 1814 after the defeat of France in the war with Russia.

Glyptics in Ancient Rome

After the fall of the kingdom of the Ptolemies (30th year BC), the era of Hellenism ended, and the Greek masters began to work for the benefit of the Roman Empire, which successfully absorbed the culture of Ancient Greece, including glyptics. But reproducing its best examples, Roman carvers began to create a multitude of portrait and multi-figured cameos with mythical and allegorical heroes.
Gradually, a new period began in the history of glyptics, in which a new style took shape. Now the emperor's triumph has become the main storyline, and in technique, preference has been given to more strict and graphic two-color compositions - white silhouettes on a dark background.

"Cameo of Augustus"

This two-tone cameo depicts Emperor Augustus surrounded by real-life historical figures and Roman gods.

"Gemma of Tiberius"

This cameo is the largest cameo in the world. Napoleon I called her the "Great Cameo of France". A cameo was made during the reign of Emperor Tiberius in his honor on the basis of a five-layer sardonyx. There are more than 20 figures on it in three rows. Emperor Tiberius with his wife Livia is depicted surrounded by his relatives and gods, carved with jewelry precision, and under their feet are the defeated Germans and Dacians with their women and children.

It is clear that miniature stone carving is not an easy task at all, requiring great skill and patience. In addition, the master must be able to discern beauty in the stone, to predict how the layers are located inside it. The carving process itself is very lengthy. The creation of one cameo may take not even months, but years of hard work. Experts compare the process of making one large cameo with the construction of an entire cathedral. Apparently, you have to love your job very much in order to do it.

But, despite all these difficulties, many beautiful specimens, real works of art, came out from under the chisels of the ancient masters. And all subsequent years they remain the ideal of beauty and perfection, to which many masters of glyptics strive.

Intaglio

Cameos

In the center of the cross is a rather large cameo depicting Emperor Augustus. This cross was donated to the most ancient and famous Aachen Cathedral by the German emperor Otto III.

Cameo of Emperor Constantine, sardonyx, 4th century AD e., Constantine and Tyche. Sardonyx. Roman work. IV century St. Petersburg, State Hermitage Museum.

The best collections of cameos belong to the museums of Vienna, Paris and St. Petersburg. Largely thanks to the efforts of Catherine II, who adored cameos and collects them, the collection of antique cameos of the Hermitage is one of the largest in the world. And today they impress the most sophisticated connoisseurs.

The most powerful state formation of the ancient world, of course, is Ancient Rome... This city not only subjugated the Apennine Peninsula, but also spread its possessions over a vast territory: from Britain to North Africa and from the Iberian Peninsula to Syria.
Capital connection with remote provinces became an urgent necessity for Rome.

For this, a network of solid stone-paved roads was built, unprecedented before. Their total length already in the time of Gaius Julius Caesar was 150 thousand kilometers.
By the way, the catch phrase " All roads lead to Rome"not as metaphorical as it seems at first glance. The oldest and widest roads did converge like rays in the capital of the empire. It was along these roads that legions were sent from Rome to war or to suppress revolts.

Appian Way, preserved to this day.

Although the basics of regular state post was laid by Julius Caesar, it acquired its canonical form under Augustus. It was he who united all routes into a single network, which was called " courseus publicus". This mail controlled by the emperor personally and was intended exclusively for state needs. The government officials who managed the post had to have a "diploma" - a document certifying their services to the state. In the provinces postal service controlled by the governors, and its content completely fell on the shoulders of the local population, which was supposed to supply mail carts, horses and riders.

Foot messengers were called " timesheets". Insignia Roman couriers became a headdress, decorated first with feathers, and then with stylized wings. After all, such a winged helmet was worn Mercury- the messenger of the gods and the patron saint of trade.

Urgent messages were delivered by horse messengers, and valuable state goods were transported on carts. Equestrian messengers called "beredos" - from the Persian word "berd", meaning "beast of burden".
Not all Roman provinces could be reached by land, and in this case for mail transportation used ships

“Suddenly today we have ships from Alexandria, which usually go ahead and announce the arrival of the next fleet after them. Therefore, they are also called mail ships. "

The main advantage " courseus publicus"has become a well-established system of road postal stations.
The stations were divided into two categories. The so-called "mansio" were comfortable inns, painted red. Here the messengers were awaited not only by accommodation and food, but also by an extensive network of services. "Mancio" was run by the chief-manseps, under whose leadership were "hospitals" (caretakers of stables), "hippocoms" (grooms), "mulions" (mule drivers), "mulomedicuses" (veterinarians) and "carpentarii" (caretakers of carts).
It is believed that it is from the Latin expression "mansio posita in ..." ("Station located at a point") subsequently, the modern concept was singled out " post" - "mail".
In addition, between the two "Mansio" there were 6-8 intermediate small stations - "mutazio", which served primarily to change horses.

"Kursus Publicus", reconstruction by L. Burger.

To ensure the safety of movement, the Romans set up military camps along important routes, which at the same time performed the functions of a construction battalion - i.e. repaired roads.
At busy intersections, special walls have even appeared, which play the role of a kind of newspapers. Everyone wrote whatever they wanted on them - from news and announcements to epigrams and love notes like "Mark loves Elena". No wonder some joker wrote the following on one of these walls: "I wonder at you, wall, how you won't collapse, continuing to carry so many trashy inscriptions.".

About how effective it was " courseus publicus"evidenced by the following fact. If Julius Caesar, constantly changing horses, could cover no more than 100 miles per day, then Emperor Tiberius, using the services postal service, moved twice as fast. As a result, the rulers of the Roman Empire received fresh news quite regularly.

But private correspondence through the state mail was prohibited. Therefore, the wealthiest of the Roman citizens had their own slave messengers. On a day, such a runner could walk about 70 km. If the message had to be sent over a long distance, then it was transmitted through traders or traveling acquaintances. True, such messages reached them much slower than the state ones. There is a known case as a certain Augustus (not the emperor) got a letter only nine years later.

Seneca, from Letters to Lucilius:
“I received your letter only many months after it was sent. Therefore, I considered it superfluous to ask the person who delivered him about your life. "

Unfortunately, the achievements of the Romans were forgotten for a long time, after the empire fell under the onslaught of the barbarians, and Europe plunged into the "dark ages" for a long time. Decline postal service was so strong that even in the 16th century, the messenger moved one and a half times slower than roman courier during the heyday " courseus publicus".

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Mail history

The history of mail: how mail services came to be

Even in ancient times, people felt the need to receive various news from other countries or populated areas. Oral or written messages were brought to the city by messengers. But, the more perfect human civilization became, the more changes took place in the methods and forms of postal communication.

It was thanks to the use of voice to convey information that articulate speech arose. But, the disadvantage of this method of transmitting news was that the human voice was heard only on short distance... As a result, hollow tree trunks were used to amplify the voice, as well as drums that notify the people of the approach of a messenger. Initially, messengers covered different distances on foot, and later horse messengers appeared. In ancient times, a state postal service was established, which consisted of written messages delivered by messengers on the principle of a relay race.

The beginning of the emergence of postal communication is the birth of writing. Since the emergence of slave-owning countries, it became necessary for rulers to be aware of everything that was happening in their country. Then the postal service became orderly. The first establishments of such a postal service appeared in ancient times. At first, these institutions were exclusively military in nature. The most developed postal services were considered in Egypt, they can be considered the predecessor of modern mail.

The post office of Ancient Egypt consisted of numerous messengers supplying the pharaohs with information. The messengers had to cover long distances in the shortest possible time, so carrier pigeons were also used as postmen. Such a postal system gradually began to appear in other countries.

In ancient Rome, only the rich could afford their own messengers. The state post was founded by Julius Caesar. She was subordinate directly to the emperor and was not intended for private use. On land, postage was carried out with the help of horses, by sea, it was transported by ships. In large centers there were special stations that served as a haven for horsemen during a long journey. Here prepared horses and carts were waiting for them in case of such a need. there were smaller ones between every two such stations. In those days, the phrase "Statio posita in ..." was used, which meant "a station located in ...". It is from the word "posita" that the word "post" - mail comes from.

With the development of trade and crafts, interest in the transmission of messages has increased, mailing... This contributed to the emergence of a variety of messenger services and posts that served artisans and merchants. The merchant post office was located in large trading houses that had their own couriers.

In the 19th century, with the advent of railways and shipping companies, and in the 20th century also the aircraft, the speed of mailing has increased significantly. The post office acquired national importance and began to serve all citizens. The railway network developed rapidly and the number of trains increased daily, and the number of post offices increased accordingly. Mail has become more advanced, there are cheap postage taxes, as well as a number of new trading operations and postal services.

Even when the telephone, telegraph and radio were invented in 1876, the post office did not lose its important role as a means of mass communication.